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### 5.4 Building Cons Cells and Lists

Many functions build lists, as lists reside at the very heart of Lisp. `cons` is the fundamental list-building function; however, it is interesting to note that `list` is used more times in the source code for Emacs than `cons`.

Function: cons object1 object2

  This function is the most basic function for building new list structure. It creates a new cons cell, making object1 the CAR, and object2 the CDR. It then returns the new cons cell. The arguments object1 and object2 may be any Lisp objects, but most often object2 is a list.

      (cons 1 '(2))
           ⇒ (1 2)

      (cons 1 '())
           ⇒ (1)

      (cons 1 2)
           ⇒ (1 . 2)

  `cons` is often used to add a single element to the front of a list. This is called consing the element onto the list. 2 For example:

      (setq list (cons newelt list))

  Note that there is no conflict between the variable named `list` used in this example and the function named `list` described below; any symbol can serve both purposes.

Function: list &rest objects

  This function creates a list with objects as its elements. The resulting list is always `nil`-terminated. If no objects are given, the empty list is returned.

      (list 1 2 3 4 5)
           ⇒ (1 2 3 4 5)

      (list 1 2 '(3 4 5) 'foo)
           ⇒ (1 2 (3 4 5) foo)

      (list)
           ⇒ nil

Function: make-list length object

  This function creates a list of length elements, in which each element is object. Compare `make-list` with `make-string` (see Creating Strings).

      (make-list 3 'pigs)
           ⇒ (pigs pigs pigs)

      (make-list 0 'pigs)
           ⇒ nil

      (setq l (make-list 3 '(a b)))
           ⇒ ((a b) (a b) (a b))
      (eq (car l) (cadr l))
           ⇒ t

Function: append &rest sequences

  This function returns a list containing all the elements of sequences. The sequences may be lists, vectors, bool-vectors, or strings, but the last one should usually be a list. All arguments except the last one are copied, so none of the arguments is altered. (See `nconc` in Rearrangement, for a way to join lists with no copying.)

  More generally, the final argument to `append` may be any Lisp object. The final argument is not copied or converted; it becomes the CDR of the last cons cell in the new list. If the final argument is itself a list, then its elements become in effect elements of the result list. If the final element is not a list, the result is a dotted list since its final CDR is not `nil` as required in a true list.

Here is an example of using `append`:

    (setq trees '(pine oak))
         ⇒ (pine oak)
    (setq more-trees (append '(maple birch) trees))
         ⇒ (maple birch pine oak)

    trees
         ⇒ (pine oak)
    more-trees
         ⇒ (maple birch pine oak)

    (eq trees (cdr (cdr more-trees)))
         ⇒ t

You can see how `append` works by looking at a box diagram. The variable `trees` is set to the list `(pine oak)` and then the variable `more-trees` is set to the list `(maple birch pine oak)`. However, the variable `trees` continues to refer to the original list:

    more-trees                trees
    |                           |
    |     --- ---      --- ---   -> --- ---      --- ---
     --> |   |   |--> |   |   |--> |   |   |--> |   |   |--> nil
          --- ---      --- ---      --- ---      --- ---
           |            |            |            |
           |            |            |            |
            --> maple    -->birch     --> pine     --> oak

An empty sequence contributes nothing to the value returned by `append`. As a consequence of this, a final `nil` argument forces a copy of the previous argument:

    trees
         ⇒ (pine oak)

    (setq wood (append trees nil))
         ⇒ (pine oak)

    wood
         ⇒ (pine oak)

    (eq wood trees)
         ⇒ nil

This once was the usual way to copy a list, before the function `copy-sequence` was invented. See Sequences Arrays Vectors.

Here we show the use of vectors and strings as arguments to `append`:

    (append [a b] "cd" nil)
         ⇒ (a b 99 100)

With the help of `apply` (see Calling Functions), we can append all the lists in a list of lists:

    (apply 'append '((a b c) nil (x y z) nil))
         ⇒ (a b c x y z)

If no sequences are given, `nil` is returned:

    (append)
         ⇒ nil

Here are some examples where the final argument is not a list:

    (append '(x y) 'z)
         ⇒ (x y . z)
    (append '(x y) [z])
         ⇒ (x y . [z])

The second example shows that when the final argument is a sequence but not a list, the sequence’s elements do not become elements of the resulting list. Instead, the sequence becomes the final CDR, like any other non-list final argument.

Function: copy-tree tree &optional vecp

  This function returns a copy of the tree `tree`. If tree is a cons cell, this makes a new cons cell with the same CAR and CDR, then recursively copies the CAR and CDR in the same way.

  Normally, when tree is anything other than a cons cell, `copy-tree` simply returns tree. However, if vecp is non-`nil`, it copies vectors too (and operates recursively on their elements).

Function: number-sequence from &optional to separation

  This returns a list of numbers starting with from and incrementing by separation, and ending at or just before to. separation can be positive or negative and defaults to 1. If to is `nil` or numerically equal to from, the value is the one-element list `(from)`. If to is less than from with a positive separation, or greater than from with a negative separation, the value is `nil` because those arguments specify an empty sequence.

  If separation is 0 and to is neither `nil` nor numerically equal to from, `number-sequence` signals an error, since those arguments specify an infinite sequence.

  All arguments are numbers. Floating-point arguments can be tricky, because floating-point arithmetic is inexact. For instance, depending on the machine, it may quite well happen that `(number-sequence 0.4 0.6 0.2)` returns the one element list `(0.4)`, whereas `(number-sequence 0.4 0.8 0.2)` returns a list with three elements. The nth element of the list is computed by the exact formula `(+ from (* n separation))`. Thus, if one wants to make sure that to is included in the list, one can pass an expression of this exact type for to. Alternatively, one can replace to with a slightly larger value (or a slightly more negative value if separation is negative).

  Some examples:

      (number-sequence 4 9)
           ⇒ (4 5 6 7 8 9)
      (number-sequence 9 4 -1)
           ⇒ (9 8 7 6 5 4)
      (number-sequence 9 4 -2)
           ⇒ (9 7 5)
      (number-sequence 8)
           ⇒ (8)
      (number-sequence 8 5)
           ⇒ nil
      (number-sequence 5 8 -1)
           ⇒ nil
      (number-sequence 1.5 6 2)
           ⇒ (1.5 3.5 5.5)

#### Footnotes

### (2)

There is no strictly equivalent way to add an element to the end of a list. You can use `(append listname (list newelt))`, which creates a whole new list by copying listname and adding newelt to its end. Or you can use `(nconc listname (list newelt))`, which modifies listname by following all the CDRs and then replacing the terminating `nil`. Compare this to adding an element to the beginning of a list with `cons`, which neither copies nor modifies the list.

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